Notes Extracts from my reading of Drig-Drishya-Viveka by Sankaracharya
The importance of Dṛg-Dṛśya-Viveka as an aid to the study of Vedānta has been well pointed out by the learned Swāmī Nikhilānanda in his introduction to this translation. The central theme of the work is that Brahman is realized through mystic or Yogic samādhi (concentration). After this state is attained, one can see Brahman wherever one turns one’s eyes.
Dṛg-Dṛśya-Viveka, as the name indicates, is an inquiry into the distinction of the ‘Seer’ (Dṛg) and the ‘Seen’ (Dṛśya)—an inquiry which is of the utmost importance for the understanding of the higher Vedānta Philosophy.
The Ātman or the innermost Self is the ultimate perceiver.
The forms, etc., are objects of perception which are varying. That which is constant and changeless is the perceiver.
The characteristic of the Seer is unchangeability. The objects change but their perceiver is constant.
Though the eye is the perceiver in respect of the various forms, yet it becomes the object of perception in its relation to the mind.
Mind, also like other sense-organs, is an object perceived by another.
Because of its changeable nature, the mind is an object of perception and Consciousness is the perceiver.
This Consciousness (1) does neither rise (2) nor set. (3) It does (4) not increase; nor does it suffer decay. Being self-luminous, it illumines everything (5) else without any other aid.
The buddhi, by itself, is insentient (जड). But its appearance as subject, object, and the means of perception is possible on account of the reflection of Consciousness (चित्) in it. This reflection endows buddhi with the power of perceiving objects.
The body (3) having been identified with the ego (which has already identified itself with the reflection of Consciousness) passes for a conscious (4) entity.
This reflection of Consciousness that identifies itself with the insentient ahaṅkāra is what is known as jīva or embodied being.
Consciousness (चैतन्य) imparts the appearance of sentiency to all objects from egoism to the gross body, because it is the innermost essence of all.
The moment the ego (अहंकार) and the reflection of Consciousness come into existence they identify themselves with each other.
The identification of the ego with the body is due to the past karma whose effect is seen in this body that lasts till the karma continues to produce its effects.
The identification of the ego with the witnessing Consciousness (साक्षी चैतन्य) is due to error (भ्रान्ति) which is destroyed only by the attainment of Knowledge.
In the state of deep sleep, when (the thought of) ego disappears, (1) the body also becomes unconscious. The state in which there is a half manifestation of the ego is called the dream state, (2) and the state in which there is a full (3) manifestation of the ego is the state of waking.
The inner (1) organ (mind), which is itself but a modification (वृत्ति:), identifying (2) itself with the reflection of Consciousness imagines (various) ideas (3) in the dream state. And the same inner organ (identifying itself with the body) imagines (4) objects external to itself in the waking state with respect to the sense-organs.
The subtle (1) body, which is the material cause of the mind and egoism, is one (2) and of the nature (3) of insentiency. It moves (4) in the three states and is born and it dies.
The existence of the material world is a matter of indubitable experience. The question arises, what is its cause? Brahman, which is beyond all causal relations, cannot create it. Therefore the scriptures postulate māyā as the cause of the appearance of the universe. This māyā is extremely illusive. It cannot be described either as real or unreal.
Both names and forms are mere forms of thought as can be understood by the analysis of names and forms experienced in dream, which are nothing but the modifications of the mind.
The illusion of names and forms appears from, and disappears in, Brahman.
Vedānta explains the origin of the universe by saying that it is the unfolding of Brahman through Its inscrutable power, called māyā.
Ignorance of the distinction between the subject and the object is the cause of one’s sufferings in the world.
The subtle body (liṅgam) which exists in close proximity to the Witness (Sākṣin) identifying itself with the gross body becomes the embodied empirical (1) self, on account of its being affected by the reflection of Consciousness.
The embodied self is unreal and hence liberation is not possible for it. Again the Sākṣin is ever free; therefore no liberation is necessary for it.
Through Knowledge one realizes that the Sākṣin is ever free from worldliness and is the eternal seer and all other ideas, from the empirical ego to the body, are mere objects and hence negatable.
As in the case of the subject itself the Sākṣin, through false identification, appears to have become the jīva, so also Brahman appears to be identified with the objective universe:
Every entity has five characteristics, viz. existence, cognizability, (1) attractiveness, form, and name. Of these, the first three belong (2) to Brahman and the next (3) two to the world.
The attributes of Existence, Consciousness, and Bliss are equally (1) present in the ākāśa (space), air, fire, water, and earth as well as in gods, animals, and men, etc. Names and forms make (2) one differ from the other.
We distinguish one object from another only by their names and forms. Names and forms are characteristics of the individual and hence relative. Even after the negation of names and forms, there exists the common substratum whose nature is Existence-Consciousness-Bliss (Absolute).
Thus, following the methods of agreement and difference, we get the implied meaning of तत् (That) and त्वं (Thou) which points to Saccidānanda Brahman. Therefore Brahman is identical with the jīva. But one should practise concentration (samādhi) in order to strengthen this conviction.
Having (1) become indifferent to name and form and being devoted to Saccidānanda, (2) one should always practise concentration (3) either within the heart (4) or outside.
The characteristics of Existence, Consciousness, and Bliss are universal and therefore they form the common features of the substratum of all objects comprehended by ‘That’ and ‘Thou’.
Concentration or samādhi means one-pointedness of the mind by which the student feels his steady identity with Brahman.
Heart is pointed out, for the facility of concentration, as the seat of Paramātman.
That is, concentration can be practised through the help of any external object, such as a word, sound, image, or any other symbol. These two modes of concentration are meant for different temperaments.
Two kinds of samādhi to be practised in the heart (within one’s self) are known as savikalpa (1) and nirvikalpa. (2) Savikalpa samādhi is again divided into two classes, according to its association with a cognizable object or a sound (as an object).
Desire, (1) etc., centred (2) in the mind are to be treated as (cognizable) objects. Meditate on Consciousness (3) as their Witness. (4) This is what is called savikalpa samādhi associated with (cognizable) objects.
Whenever any thought appears in the mind, take it to be an object and be indifferent to it. But think of the eternal and permanent Ātman as your real nature. The object, which is an idea, appears and disappears.
I am Existence (1)-Consciousness-Bliss, un-attached, (2) self-luminous (3) and free (4) from duality. This is known as the (other kind of) savikalpa samādhi associated with sound (object).
But (1) the nirvikalpa samādhi is that in which the mind (2) becomes steady like the (unflickering flame of a) light kept in a place free from wind and in which the student becomes indifferent to both (3) objects and sounds on account (4) of his complete absorption in the bliss of the realization of the Self.
Through the constant practise of the savikalpa samādhi, the mind becomes free from all distractions that are the result of attachment to sense-objects. Therefore, the student then becomes competent to practise nirvikalpa samādhi in which the mind becomes steady like the unflickering flame of a candle kept in a windless place.
The nirvikalpa samādhi is the highest kind of concentration in which the practitioner realizes his real Self. In this samādhi the functions of the mind are stopped and one experiences the highest Bliss.
This samādhi is characterized by the absence of the knowledge of the subject-object relationship.
The difference between deep sleep and nirvikalpa samādhi is that in the former state there is no knowledge of Self, but in the latter there exists no feeling of not knowing the Self, because in the nirvikalpa samādhi one becomes identified with the ever-conscious Ātman.
Nirvikalpa samādhi, which is identical with the highest Knowledge, can be attained only as a result of discrimination between the real and the unreal. After this discrimination, the student becomes indifferent to everything of the relative world.
This samādhi is possible only for him who has become established in complete renunciation.
The first (1) kind of samādhi is possible with the help of any external (2) object as it is with the help of an internal (3) object. In that samādhi the name and form are separated (4) from what is Pure Existence (5) (Brahman).
Every object, as we have also seen, has three unchangeable aspects, namely: Existence, visibility, and attractiveness. The practitioner should concentrate his mind on Pure Existence, which is the same as Brahman, and dissociate himself from the changing aspects of name and form.
The entity which (1) is (always) of the same nature and unlimited (by time, space, etc.) and which is characterized by Existence-Consciousness-Bliss, is verily Brahman.
The insensibility (1) of the mind (to external objects) as (2) before, on account of the experience (3) of Bliss, is designated as the third kind of samādhi (nirvikalpa).
With the disappearance of the attachment (1) to the body and with the realization of the Supreme Self, to whatever objects (2) the mind is directed one experiences samādhi. (3)
On account of attachment to the body, a being feels that he is a man, a brahmin, a so-and-so, etc. Following the process of enquiry laid down in Vedānta, the student realizes that all internal entities from the empirical ego to the body are only objects and the subject (Self) is the Witness. Therefore, he ceases to identify himself as attached to the objects, knowing that appearance and disappearance are their inevitable nature. Similarly, by an analysis of the external world he realizes that Brahman is the only permanent entity in the universe, while names and forms are changing phenomena. Therefore the practitioner becomes indifferent to internal and external objects and fixes his mind on Brahman, which is identical with the Self.
By (1) beholding Him who (2) is high and low, the fetters (3) of the heart are broken, all (4) doubts are solved and all (5) his karmas (activities and their effects) wear away.
How is it possible for a limited entity (jīva) to be identical with the Absolute Brahman?
Limitation is illusory (1) but that which appears to be limited is real. (2) The jīvahood (3) (of the Self) is due to the superimposition of illusory attributes. But really it (4) has the nature of Brahman.
The four great Vedic statements which summarize the entire teachings of the Vedas are: (1) ‘That Thou Art’ (तत्त्वमसि); (2) ‘I am Brahman’ (अहं ब्रह्मास्मि); (3) ‘This Ātman is Brahman (अयम् आत्मा ब्रह्म); (4) ‘(Pure) Consciousness is Brahman’ (प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म).
Māyā, which has the double aspect (1) of projection and concealment, is in (2) Brahman. It limits the indivisible nature of Brahman and makes (3) It (Brahman) appear as the world and the embodied being.
That is, after the real nature of Brahman is limited by māyā, It (Brahman) appears as jīva (enjoyer) and jagat (the objects of enjoyment).
What is the nature of jīva and what is again the nature of the universe?
It is because the fallacious presentation of Consciousness (चिदाभास:) located in the buddhi performs various (1) actions and enjoys (2) their results therefore it is called jīva. And all this, consisting of the elements (3) and their products (4) which are of the nature of the objects of enjoyment, is called jagat (universe).
Both jīva and jagat are the products of māyā, hence they are cognized as long as a man is in a state of ignorance:
It is because we are in māyā that we cannot know the cause of māyā.
In the state of ignorance the ideas of knower, knowledge, and known are possible and the existence of the universe as well as various activities connected with it are possible only through these concepts.
The world disappears when one attains liberation or jñāna.
The jīva and jagat are neither real (पारमाथिर्क) nor illusory (प्रतिभासिक). They are empirical or phenomenal (व्यावहारिक).
These two objects (namely, the perceiving self and the perceived world) are illusory on account of their having existed only (1) during the period of (dream) experience. It is because no one after waking up from dream sees those objects when one dreams again.
From this analogy it can be said that the entire world of experiences, perceived as real during the state of ignorance, is illusory or imaginary on account of its non-perception after the attainment of Knowledge.
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